In many rural parts of South Africa, getting to a hospital, school or workplace depends on the condition of a gravel road. When that road collapses during rain or potholes make it impassable, the consequences are immediate: ambulances cannot reach patients, children miss school, workers lose income.
This is the reality for many communities in the Eastern Cape, one of South Africa’s poorest provinces. Here, four out of every five children live in households whose monthly income isn’t enough to meet their basic needs. In 2024, nearly 50% of children in the Eastern Cape lived in households without a single employed adult – the highest rate in the country.
A recent study in one Eastern Cape community documents that the roads are so degraded – from poorly maintained gravel to crumbling asphalt – that they actively cut residents off from healthcare, education and markets.
The problem is often described simply as a failure of service delivery. But this explanation is incomplete. My research as a sociologist with a particular interest in the transport sector suggests that the decay of rural roads reflects something deeper. It is not a breakdown, but a continuation. A regime of inequality continues to shape infrastructure development long after the end of apartheid.
The poor infrastructure is a direct legacy of apartheid’s spatial planning, which from 1948 to 1994 systematically underdeveloped rural “homelands” like the former Transkei (now in the Eastern Cape) to confine and control the Black majority.
Today’s neglected roads still physically isolate communities, restrict their access to markets and services, and demonstrate how the state, through inaction and underfunding, maintains the barriers established by its predecessor.
In my study, I drew on the 2023 inquiry conducted by the South African Human Rights Commission into the state of rural roads in the province. The inquiry was convened in response to a pattern of complaints received by the Commission from rural communities over several years. I served on the panel for this inquiry, which heard oral testimonies from affected community members and farmers, and received detailed written submissions from key stakeholders.
A key finding was that only 9% of the province’s roads are paved, compared to a national average of 25%. The inquiry found that poor road infrastructure limits people’s ability to access essential services enshrined as constitutional rights, such as healthcare, education and social support.
Roads as a system of power
Infrastructure is often seen as neutral – roads, bridges and railways that simply allow people and goods to move. But infrastructure also reflects political choices about who receives investment and who is left behind.
A snapshot of this is evident in the provincial budget for roads in the Eastern Cape. The human rights inquiry report reveals that the Eastern Cape Department of Transport receives an annual allocation of about R2.5 billion (almost US$150 million) for its road network. But the department itself estimates a capital backlog of R30.5 billion just to bring roads up to an acceptable standard.
While the annual budget allows for upgrading only about 42km of road per year (at an average cost per kilometre of R18 million, or over US$1 million), the province has over 36,000km of unpaved roads – a legacy of apartheid-era neglect.
This is not a technical failure. It is a political choice to perpetuate a system where the most vulnerable communities remain isolated.
Three decades after democracy, many of these patterns remain visible. And the effects continue to ripple through everyday life.
The everyday harm of infrastructure decay
For rural residents, road deterioration is not just an inconvenience. It produces what scholars call slow, everyday harm.
Ambulances struggle to reach remote villages, delaying medical care. School transport is disrupted when buses cannot travel on damaged roads. Farmers face difficulties transporting goods to markets. Public transport services often avoid areas where roads are impassable.
S.C. Fobosi, Author provided (no reuse)
These impacts accumulate over time, affecting livelihoods, health and dignity.
In some cases, residents must walk long distances because vehicles cannot reach their communities. During heavy rains, entire villages can become temporarily isolated.
This situation highlights how infrastructure shapes social inequality. When roads deteriorate, the burden falls disproportionately on people who already face economic and geographic marginalisation.
Why the problem persists
Several factors contribute to the continued deterioration of rural roads.
The first is the massive historical backlog.
Second, the funding model is fundamentally inadequate. The inquiry report details that the Eastern Cape relies almost entirely on the Provincial Roads Maintenance Grant. Provincial Treasury itself argued that the national funding formula, based on population, fails to account for the province’s vast geography and historical infrastructure deficit.
Third, governance and capacity issues are rife. Submissions from the Auditor General highlighted repeated financial mismanagement within the Department of Transport, including fruitless and wasteful expenditure on contracts. Municipalities, tasked with maintaining local roads, often lack the resources and the technical capacity to effectively use management systems.
Fourth, the impact of climate change is accelerating decay. The inquiry heard from multiple municipalities about how increasingly severe weather events overwhelm their ability to respond.
Finally, a lack of coordination and accountability. The report notes that despite clear legal mandates, there is often poor planning between the provincial department, the national roads agency and municipalities, leading to misaligned priorities and slow project implementation.
Urban areas and major highways receive priority funding because they are economically strategic. This is not a uniquely South African phenomenon – it is a global pattern. The World Bank estimates that 80% of the world’s poorest people reside in rural areas.
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Rural roads tend to receive less consistent maintenance. When maintenance is consistently deferred, costs climb.
Meanwhile, funds that could be used for this upkeep are often tied up elsewhere. A recent Auditor-General’s report found that municipal infrastructure projects nationally face average delays of 17 to 26 months, and all South African municipalities combined spend only 4% of the total value of their assets on maintenance.
These numbers show that the deterioration of rural roads is not an accident, but the predictable outcome of political choices not to invest in marginalised communities.
Communities stepping in
Despite these challenges, rural residents are not passive victims of infrastructure neglect.
Across parts of the Eastern Cape, communities have organised to repair roads themselves. Residents fill potholes, clear drainage channels and use local materials to stabilise damaged sections of road.
S.C. Fobosi
These efforts are often informal and rely on collective labour rather than state support. They reflect what scholars sometimes call “insurgent infrastructure” – grassroots initiatives that emerge when the state fails to maintain essential services.
While such actions demonstrate community resilience, they also highlight the scale of the problem. Road infrastructure is expensive and technically complex to maintain. Community efforts cannot substitute for sustained public investment.
Rethinking infrastructure policy
Addressing rural road deterioration requires more than occasional repairs. It demands a broader rethinking of infrastructure governance.
First, rural infrastructure should be treated as a development priority, not a secondary concern. Reliable roads are essential for economic participation, access to services and social inclusion.
Second, government agencies need stronger coordination to ensure that road maintenance responsibilities are clearly defined and effectively implemented.
Finally, policymakers should recognise the knowledge and experience of rural communities themselves. Residents often understand the local terrain and infrastructure challenges better than distant administrators.
Beyond service delivery
If rural roads continue to deteriorate, the consequences will extend far beyond transport. They will reinforce social and economic exclusion for already marginalised communities.
Recognising infrastructure as part of a broader regime of inequality is an important step towards addressing these challenges.
