Canada and its allies use many terms to describe how military operations are conducted. These terms are not interchangeable. They fall along a spectrum of complexity, integration, domains and the number of entities involved.
At one end are operations confined to a single service — the army, navy or air force — and a single domain: land, sea, air, cyber or space. At the other end lies something far more ambitious: fully integrated, long-term efforts that bring together not just the military but government departments, allies, industry and even society itself.
Western militaries must be prepared to operate across this entire spectrum in peace, crisis and war. The terminology is often confusing, but it shapes how militaries organize, train and operate, and increasingly how they co-ordinate with civilian organizations to counter threats to critical infrastructure and daily life.
Joint operations
Let’s begin with what is most familiar: joint operations. They involve two or more military services (for example, the army and air force) working under a single commander. While this sounds straightforward, it’s not.
Each service has its own culture, expertise and way of planning and operating. Integrating them is difficult. Canada, for example, dedicates nearly a year to training mid-level officers to operate effectively in joint environments.
Even then, integration is often limited. Services may co-ordinate closely but still act largely within their own domains — the air force in the skies, the army on land, the navy at sea. Integration exists, but it is often sequential rather than fully fused.
(AP Photo/Michel Euler)
Combined and multi-domain operations
Next are combined operations.
These involve forces from two or more countries operating under a shared command toward a common objective. Canada has considerable experience here through NATO and United Nations missions. But the operating environment is changing.
Adversaries are faster, more integrated and more willing to act across various domains simultaneously, often using disruptive technologies.
This brings us to the next evolution of operations: multi-domain ones. These represent a shift from co-ordination to integration. They combine capabilities across land, air, sea, cyber and space simultaneously.
The aim is to generate effects across all domains that reinforce each other to produce decisive outcomes.
All-domain operations
The next evolution is all-domain operations — often called joint all-domain operations. Here, the focus is on speed and scale.
The objective is to connect sensors (radar, satellites, infrared and acoustic sensors), decision-makers and shooters (meaning the weapon systems or units that can engage a target, like missiles, aircraft, artillery or naval platforms) across all services and domains in near real-time.
In this model, the joint force operates as a single integrated network. Data from any sensor can inform any decision; any military asset can have an impact, from issuing a warning to defeating a threat. Success depends on cloud computing, networks and the ability to interpret and manage staggering amounts of data quickly and act on it.
Importantly, all-domain operations build on multi-domain integration. They are not competing concepts. Without achieving effective multi-domain integration, all-domain operations aren’t possible.
Canada, however, goes a step further with the concept of pan-domain operations. Pan-domain expands beyond the military. It’s a whole-of-state — and potentially whole-of-society — approach. It integrates military capabilities with diplomatic, economic, informational, legal and industrial tools. It involves multiple government departments, allies, private industry and civil society.
In short, pan-domain operations describe how an entire country competes, not just how its military fights.
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Working differently
These concepts differ in their logic and scope. Multi-domain operations link military sectors to achieve operational effects, typically led by a single service. All-domain operations connect data and networks across the joint force, enabling integrated decision-making at speed. Pan-domain operations go further still, integrating military and civilian instruments of power in a co-ordinated national effort.
Pan-domain success depends on a well-integrated military foundation. These concepts build on each other. They are related, but not interchangeable.
If the distinctions are misunderstood, there is a risk of confusion, while adversaries move forward with greater clarity and coherence.
Although NATO formally uses the language of multi-domain operations, in practice, it’s moving toward a broader approach to deterrence and defence — one that reflects elements of pan-domain thinking.
This is evident in its emphasis on Article 3 of the North Atlantic Treaty, which focuses on national resilience and preparedness. This includes ensuring continuity of government, protecting critical infrastructure and maintaining essential services in the face of shocks such as natural disasters, hybrid threats or military attacks.
THE CANADIAN PRESS/Adrian Wyld
Looking ahead
These are not purely military concerns. They require civil preparedness and co-ordination across sectors. However, a gap remains between ambition and reality.
Despite increased defence spending — including NATO commitments to allocate an additional 1.5 per cent of GDP toward resilience and readiness — true integration remains uneven. Co-ordination among allies, sectors and those in power is still incomplete.
Pan-domain effects can be seen in practice, but a fully integrated system — particularly in terms of command, control and co-ordination — is still a bit of a pipe dream. Even in Ukraine, the most demanding real-world case, achieving seamless integration has proven difficult.
For Canada and its allies, moving toward all-domain operations — and eventually pan-domain integration — requires organizational change, new training approaches and better alignment across military and civilian institutions.
If NATO is to keep pace with adversaries that already operate across domains as they prepare for conflict, it must ensure its concepts are understood, its forces are integrated and its ambitions are matched by practical capability.
The evolution is underway. The question is whether integration can catch up with intent.
